Cultural Reference

The wife of Othello in William Shakespeare’s play OTHELLO, THE MOOR OF VENICE. Othello murders Desdemona after he is convinced by the villian, Iago, that she is being unfaithful. This play is one of the most famous tragedies written by William Shakespeare.

In the tragic play, THE TRAGEDY OF HAMLET, PRINCE OF DENMARK, written by William Shakespeare between 1599 and 1601, Hamlet, the Prince of Denmark, returns home because his father has died. Hamlet then learns that his mother, Queen Gertrude, has married his uncle, Claudius, only months after his father’s death, and that Claudius is now the king. Later on in the play, the ghost of his father warns Hamlet that he was murdered by Claudius. During the course of the play, Hamlet plots his revenge against his uncle and the play ends in tragedy. Hamlet is most famous for the soliloquy, "To be, or not to be: that is the question" (Act III, Sc. I).

An animal or human who consumes the flesh of a member of the same species. In animals, cannibalism occurs regularly in a number of species for population control or to maximize genetic offspring. The term "cannibal" is the anglicized version of a word used by the Spanish for a West Indies tribe, the Carib. European colonizers reported that this tribe practiced cannibalism by eating their war enemies. However, the Carib may not have engaged in cannibalism, and Europeans likely fabricated the accusation to defend their own actions. Evidence does exist, however, that human cannibalism has been practiced at different times in history at various locations for various purposes.

Slang for "fraternity house." Fraternity (and sorority) houses are part of the Greek system, or Greek letter organization, found at some universities and colleges, a system that purportedly encourages community service but that is more generally understood as an exclusive social system. Often, membership is available only to those have the financial resources and social and physical attributes typically associated with an insular, white, upper middle class, although fraternity and sorority houses exist that do promote community service and social values that transcend the stereotype of racist privilege.

Often commonly referred to as a "bike," the bicycle is a two-wheeled, man-powered mode of transportation that became popular as both entertainment and exercise in the late nineteenth century.

A protective outer layer generally worn to protect a person in battle. For the Europeans, armor was often made of metal and thick cloth. However, as Native Americans did not use metal extensively before European contact, their armor was often made of wood, bones, and animal hides. For some Southwest tribes, armor came in the form of shields that were an average of 17 inches in diameter that were painted and decorated on the outside.

The Navajo used armor made from buckskin covered in a quilted cloth, which helped the armor keep its shape. This armor was tight fitting around the neck region and extended to the elbow. The first layer of buckskin was tied in the front and covered in a sticky substance derived from cactus. This layer was then covered in another layer of buckskin. The buckskin has been recorded as being up to eight layers thick and very heavy. Additionally, like other Southwestern tribes, the Navajo also sometimes carried shields.

Typically a small, often rounded object with a hole bored through the center through which a length of fiber, sinew, or gut can be threaded. Beads are formed from stone, bone, seeds, animal quills, and petrified wood as well as more exotic materials such as semi-precious stones, metals, clay, shells, and glass. A variety of beads were used as items of trade among many traditional societies, as they have been used in the production of jewelry and decorated clothing items.

Many Native American tribes in the United States have their distinctive connections to beads and beading. The beading of clothing, baskets, and ceremonial costumes and headdresses is held as a sacred tradition in many tribal communities. Much of this handiwork is very labor-intensive and learning to bead is an important and cherished tradition. Inside and outside tribal communities, beadwork is often viewed as art.

Bead can also refer to the little bead-sized bump used to help sight, or aim, a firing arm. The bead is typically found at the firing end of a gun or rifle barrel.

The Apache are Native American peoples who historically lived in the Great Basin, Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. In popular culture they are remembered as being fierce warrior people and their name, Apache, is an Anglicization of the Zuñi word, ápachu, meaning “enemy.” The Apache were nomadic, meaning they traveled around seasonally following game. Women gathered vegetables, fruits, and grasses, while men hunted deer, hare, and antelope. Clothes included skirts for women and for men breechcloths of buckskin, and both wore hide high moccasins with pointed toes. They lived in ephemeral structures which included tipis and, most often, wickiups, a temporary cone-shaped hut. In addition to being great hunters, the Apache were known for being strong warriors. They had a raiding economy, which involved taking weapons, supplies, and occasionally captives.

In the 1500’s the Apache first made contact with Coronado and his troops during their exploration of the Southwest. This began a new era for the Southwest and the Apache. When the Spanish settled in the Southwest the Apache both traded with and raided their settlements. After the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848, much of the northern holdings of the United Mexican States was ceded to the United States, who then considered themselves the rulers over much of the Apache historic territory. This led to a long bloody conflict known as the Apache Wars (approximately 1860-1886). Apache leaders during this long conflict included: Cochise, Victorio, Geronimo, and Mangas Coloradas. The last Apache resistance fighters, led by Geronimo, participated in the last Native American uprising in the United States. Eventually, the U.S. Army was able to force the Apache onto various reservations throughout the American Southwest and Oklahoma.

Acoma has been translated into English as both the "people of the white rock" as well as "a place always prepared." The Acoma are descended from Anasazi and earlier Mogollon cultures, and their pueblo has been continuously inhabited since the thirteenth-century. The primary community of the pueblo, Haaku, has existed on top of a sandstone monolith since at least 1200 CE, and is surrounded by a valley which the Acoma have farmed successfully for almost 1,000 years. Because of the pueblo's prime location, the Acoma were subject to periodic raids from neighboring Utes and Navajos and have also been subjected to Spanish, Catholic, and Anglo-European influences since the 16th century. Today, the Acoma are actively involved in the preservation of their culture in an approach that includes the Acoma Language Retention Project, as well as the conception that they are on an ongoing journey that demands engagement with the changing world around them.

Hillerman alternates the definition of "Beloved Ones" and sometimes it is a way of referring to ancestors and sometimes to the gods of the Zuni creation story. In Zuni belief, ancestors are supposed to serve as mediators between the mortals and the gods. The Beloved Ones, or ancestors, provide protection, spiritual comfort, guidance and sustenance. The cult of the ancestors is invoked in all ceremonies.

Masks mediate between the living beloved and the beloved ancestors. The masks are carefully guarded, given offerings of food every day, and are inaccessible to children. Masks are sacred possessions that bless the house and can channel the energy and joy of the dead beloved ancestors to the living beloved ones, assauging loneliness.

In The Boy Who Made Dragonfly, "Beloved Ones" is initially used as a reference to the "Beloved Two" or "Beloved Twins." When Sun-Father impregnates the Earth Mother with a cup of foam, the Beloved Two are born. As the twin brothers of light, Úanam Achi Píahkoa and Úanam Yáluna are the elder and younger, the right and the left, the Beloved Preceder and the Beloved Follower. Braiding grasses for ladders, the twins aided the people in climbing out of the caves of the first, second and third worlds.